Which of the following is NOT listed as a carryover effect of functional electrical stimulation (FES)?

• A. Improves connective tissue stretch
• B. Improves bone density
• C. Possibly cortical reorganization
• D. Improves the fitness & strength of remaining units

Answer: (B)

Carryover effects from functional electrical stimulation training are the lasting changes in neuromuscular and soft-tissue systems that persist after stopping stimulation. The most consistent carryover you see is improvements in how the tissue behaves and adapts with use: connective tissue can become more compliant and stretchable from repetitive loading, and the brain can reorganize its motor pathways with repeated, purposeful movements, supporting improved control. There can also be gains in the fitness and strength of remaining or synergistic muscles due to neural adaptations and cross-education from the training.

Bone density, by contrast, is driven primarily by sustained mechanical loading over longer periods. While FES can contribute to muscle-driven loading during stimulation, bone density changes are not typically viewed as a direct carryover effect after the stimulation ends.